Small Religious Groups

Ancient World Religions

Among the ancient world religion which are included in Professional Edition are Zoroastrianism, Shintoism and Taoism. Zoroastrianism is probably 3000 or more years old and was the major religion in Persia. Having been largely superceded by Islam in that region, Zoroastrianism was kept alive in a part of India. Recent immigration has brought some Zoroastrians to Australia.

Taoism is an ancient religion of China, while Shintoism is a development of ancient tribal and animistic religious beliefs in Japan. A religion with a thousand years of history is Druse. Drawing on some themes from Christian and Islamic sources, along with its own teachings, the Druse faith is found in some parts of Syria, Lebanon and Israel, and has come to Australia with recent immigration.

In many places around the world, people may practise several ‘layers’ of religious beliefs drawn from different sources. For example, in many parts of the world, ancient animistic beliefs in a world populated by spiritual beings associated with a range of living and other natural objects such as trees, rocks and rivers continue to be held. Belief that the spirits of one’s ancestors are still around and should be respected are also common in many places. Such beliefs are overlaid with the philosophies of Buddhism, and sometimes with Christian or Islamic beliefs.

Modern Immigrant Religions

Several more modern religions from Asia have arrived in Australia largely through immigration. Caodism arose in Vietnam around 1920. A Vietnamese man claimed to have contact to a great spirit, Cao Dai. Sukyo Mahikari is a Japanese religion based on claims of revelation of the light of the Creator God received by a Mr Yoshikazu Okada. Tenrikyo is another Japanese religion, established in the late 19th century, by Nakayama Miki who claimed revelation of the divine.

More recent is Subud, which arose out the extra-ordinary spiritual experiences of Muhammed Subuh Sumohadiwidjojo, a Javanese man. The movement has spread internationally since World War II.

Small Denominations with a Christian Heritage

Religious Society of Friends

Since the Reformation there have been a number of movements which have resulted in the formation of new denominations. Those central to the movement have generally been large, while, in general it might be said that the groups which have taken more extreme positions have remained smaller and more peripheral.

On the periphery of the Reformation itself, in the 17th century, was the Quakers or the Religious Society of Friends. They took more seriously than most the reformation idea that the spirit of God could inspire all people. Consequently, the saw no need for ordained clergy or prepared services of worship. Rather, in worship, the group gathered to wait for God’s spirit to guide them. The Religious Society of Friends continues to be a small but active group in Australia.

Unitarianism

In the 18th century, many Christians sought to combine new understandings of the natural laws on which the world operated with their Christian beliefs. Some found it hard to reconcile ideas such as the Trinity within that context, and for many, the idea of the miraculous seemed incongruous with the evolving understanding of science. Some of these people developed Unitarian ideas, identified by the rejection of the idea of the Trinity. For many years, there have been a few churches in Australia which have been explicitly unitarian.

The Holiness Movement

The end of the 18th century saw revival, led by the teaching of John Wesley and leading to the formation of the Methodist Church. A renewal of Wesleyanism in the late 19th century, particularly in the United States, stressing the need for the holiness of Christians, led to the formation of several new denominations which are now represented in Australia. These include the Wesleyan Methodists, the Church of the Nazarene and the Christian and Missionary Alliance. (Another denomination which emerged out of the holiness movement and renewal of Wesleyan ideas was the Salvation Army.)

Apostolic Churches

Another Christian movement of the early 19th century arose from the teaching of Edward Irving, originally a Presbyterian minister. Irving believed that it was important to recover the faith of the early church. For him, this meant recovering the miraculous gifts of which the New Testament speaks, such as the gift of speaking in tongues and of prophesy. Irving also believed that the Christ would come again to the earth in the near future, and that people needed to prepare for that. Most churches were not at all open to the idea of the ‘miraculous gifts’ being practiced, and consequently a new denomination was formed, known as the Catholic Apostolic Church. Irving’s followers looked for the patterns of worship in the traditions of the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic churches. The ideas spread to Europe and to other parts of the world. However, disagreements over leadership of the group led to several different denominations being formed, two of which are found in Australia including the New Apostolic Church and the Apostolic Church of Queensland.

Millennial groups

The Seventh-day Adventist church emerged in the United States in the latter half of the 19th century. It also stressed the holiness of its followers, the ‘restoration’ of the importance of Old Testament teaching and rules, and the coming again of Jesus Christ to the earth. A more extreme expression of some of these ideas was found in the World Wide Church of God which developed from the teaching of Herbert W. Armstrong in the 1930s. The World Wide Church of God has since moved considerably in its teaching to a more traditional evangelical stance, but has splintered in the process.

A quite different approach to the second coming of Christ was taken by a German group which sought to prepare for the second coming by establishing communities in Israel. This group, known as the Temple Society, was expelled from Israel, and some of its members found their way to Australia.

Christian Science

While some new denominations which emerged in the late 19th century and early 20th century in the United States emphasized holiness, others stressed the idea of healing and wholeness which Christianity offered, often with a emphasis on spiritual healing. Among these were Christian Science, inspired by the teaching of Mary Baker Eddy and the Unity School of Christianity.

Native Australian Ceremony: Song, Music, Dance

Ceremony

Songs and dances were exchanged often at large ceremonial gatherings when many people gathered together and when trade goods were also exchanged. These gatherings often occurred at a time and place when there was plenty of food.

Ceremony is the underlying basis of Indigenous song, music, dance and visual arts. Ceremony contains many significant elements, some of which are specifically related to depicting Dreaming stories. Sometimes these expressions of music, art, song, dance and performance are seen as separate commodities in the Western world. However, from an Aboriginal perspective they are all part of a complex whole.

Song

Senior artist and elder David Mowaljarlai OAM (1928 - 1997) once stated 'song was the first idea, the principle of sharing which underlies our system'. Each song, like each design or painting is part of a moment in a larger story. Songs make up a song series or a 'songline' which is a map of the country based on the travels of the Dreaming ancestors. To knowledgeable Aboriginal people, seeing a painting or a design will call to mind a song. Many senior painters sing as they paint the story of the song.

Indigenous popular musicians tend not to write straight love songs. They are more likely to write about subjects important to their communities, especially land and community issues as well as protest songs. Songs about land relate their love of and identification with country, loss of land and attempts to return to one's country. Community issues addressed in songs include alcohol and keeping culture.

Despite the great variety of song types from different areas, there are some common underlying features. Traditional songs are usually specific to local areas, often referencing local geographic features particular local animal species, historical events or the social environment.

In a ceremonial context, songs are seen as having a non-human origin. Old songs, evoking powerful Dreaming stories, are said to be created by the Dreaming beings themselves as they created the country in its present form. New songs may also be dreamed by individuals. The song text can evoke a complex web of associations and meaning for people who have extensive and specific local knowledge of country.

Music

Didgeridoo

Today, didgeridoo, painting and video clips may be the first point of contact with Aboriginal culture for an international audience. The didgeridoo has became the major symbol of Aboriginal music. The popularity of the didgeridoo amongst alternative Western peoples has raised concerns that the didgeridoo has been taken out of its original music context. These issues are addressed by Top End, Northern Territory, Aboriginal people through different websites, publications and conferences.

However, not all Aboriginal groups had didgeridoos which were originally found in Arnhem Land, Northern Australia and known as 'yidaki'. The didgeridoo is possibly the world's oldest musical instrument and is made from limbs and tree trunks hollowed out by termites (insects) creating a wind instrument.

Torres Strait Islands and Christine Anu

In contrast, Torres Strait Islander music is predominantly vocal with percussion accompaniment. Island songs are performed in two or three-part harmony which are improvised by the singers. A beat is always maintained for the singers and dancers on a large, waisted drum. ARIA award-winning singer, Christine Anu, from the Torres Strait has made her signature song My Island Home, an anthem for reconciliation among younger Australians after singing it at the Sydney 2000 Olympics.

Indigenous rock and folk

Music is one of the primary means by which Indigenous Australians maintain their identity and culture. There are many music types which flourish across Australia including Aboriginal rock and folk music. Coloured Stone, a band from Koonibba, South Australia, who fuse reggae, country-western and rock genres while making use of didgeridoo and Indigenous language words, wrote the hit songs Black Boy and Kapi Pulka (Big Rain).The Pigram Brothers combine harmonies with layers of acoustic guitars, dobros, mandolins and slide guitars to tell tales of their Broome lifestyle and community. Archie Roach, from Warrnambool, Victoria is well known for his protest songs including Took the children away. Prominent Yolngu band Yothu Yindi, from north-east Arnhem Land, has found a position in mainstream music industry, believing that they are a stepping stone to reconciliation, writing the hit song Treaty.

In the early 1970s Jimmy Little was acknowledged as one of Australia's premier country music stars, having made a hit single with pop song 'Royal Telephone' in 1963. Although mostly recognised for country musical style, Jimmy dabbled with orchestral sounds (1972), reggae (1983), Jimmy found wide recognition with Brendan Gallagher, a musician and producer, when they recorded, in 1999, an album of mainly alternative and classic Australian rock songs from the 1980s. The resulting album Messenger was an immediate success reaching the top ten of the alternative music charts in 1999, winning an ARIA award for Adult contemporary album.

Troy Cassar-Daley has won almost every award there is including 'Best Country Album', 'Best Male Vocal', 'Entertainer of the Year', 'Best Video' and an ARIA for 'Best Country Record'. Rolling Stone described Troy's style as 'quintessentially Australian while echoing the personal style of Bruce Springsteen [with] vivid images of country life and love'.

Indigenous communities and recording - Indigenous roots music

Although some bands aim for success, others are more interested in producing their own music primarily for their own communities.

Aboriginal broadcasting and media associations often consider the promotion of community and cultural development as their primary aim. The Central Australian Aboriginal Media Association (CAAMA) provides regular recording services for local community bands as well as conducting music workshops in local Indigenous communities, in a range of styles from country and western to rock and world music. Despite the high-quality material, CAAMA 'has found that mainstream broadcasters are reluctant to air or market its products'.

Another venture, Skinnyfish Music, in the Top End, aims to promote and market those local community bands that want to sell their music to a wider audience. For example, Nabarlek, a nine-piece Arnhem Land band, has travelled extensively in Australia and overseas. Nabarlek's songs are derived from traditional stories and songs and are sung in tribal language and English. Their style is influenced by rock, country and gospel and is known as Indigenous Roots music.

Dance

Dance is a unique aspect of ceremonies which is learnt and passed down from one generation to another. To dance is to be knowledgeable about the stories of the ancestral heroes. Dancing, unlike painting and singing, is learnt at an early age. This allows large groups of people to demonstrate their clan rights in front of an audience. Dance is also seen as an occasion to entertain and to be entertained and through the work of dance to show their love for families and kin. It is for this reason that dance may be performed at the end of every day in some communities.

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, 'urban Aboriginal people were looking at revitalising their culture' through the Yelang Dancers and the Torres Strait Island Dance Group in South Brisbane. A modern Afro-American dance company visiting from New York inspired a series of workshops in Redfern, Sydney, supported by the Aboriginal Arts Board. They arranged for David Gulpilil to teach traditional dance.

The concept of presenting and training in three styles - traditional Aboriginal, traditional Torres Strait Islander and contemporary modern dance - was begun as a means to ensure a comprehensive picture of Indigenous Australia.

The Aboriginal Arts Board funded this workshop structure, that started at the Black Theatre in 1975, which permitted urban Indigenous people to study traditional culture from traditional owners. Modern Indigenous dance companies have developed under the direction of dance elders from Maningrida, Yirrkala and Dhalinbuy in north-eastern Arnhem Land.

The desire by Indigenous people for training as professional dancers precipitated a three-year course. This later developed into the National Aboriginal and Islander Skills Development Association (NAISDA) in 1988. Bangarra Dance Theatre, an offshoot of NAISDA, was established in 1989, and the Aboriginal/Islander Dance Theatre in 1992. All of these companies saw their creative leadership come from trained Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander dancers.

Dances were disciplined and varied in both traditional and modern forms of dance, achieving excellence across a variety of styles. NAISDA's practices were seen as reconciliation in action. People from traditional communities participated fully and provided leadership at the same time as the Australian dance community, and international audiences interacted with the dancers.

Dance Theatre

The Bangarra Dance Theatre is best known for its fusion of traditional Aboriginal and contemporary Western dance movements, and receives international acclaim for its works. Its founders' goals were to create a distinct, professional performing body for Indigenous artists, and allow them to continue to work in the context of their own cultures. Significant early productions included Praying Mantis Dreaming (1992), Ochres (1995) and Fish (1997). Recent productions include Clan (2004), Boomerang (2005) and True Stories (2007).

True Stories is a double bill program, X300 and Emeret Lu. X300 In the 1950s a series of atomic explosions were conducted on Maralinga Tjarutja traditional lands. The code name of the test site was X300. Frances Rings's new work explores a landscape assumed vacant and cleared of occupation but which in reality became a contaminated desert which poisoned the people. Emeret Lu ('Very old things') - The passion and energy of the traditional people of the Torres Straits fuel this new work by choreographer Elma Kris. The dances 'celebrating rain, wind, the hunt, desire and pleasure mingle with the charm of the spiritual to create a work of lasting imagery'.

Indigenous theatre companies, like Yirra Yaakin Noongar Theatre, can combine theatre, music, song and dance as a forceful expression of ceremony in award winning performances. David Milroy of the Injibarnd and Palku people, a musician, writer and theatre director is the Artistic Director, of Yirra Yaakin. Milroy's music has featured in films (Blackfellas, Exile and the Kingdom). David has also provided the musical direction for Black Swan Theatre Company productions Sistergirl and Dead Heart as well as the Perth Theatre Company's production of Wild Cat Falling. David won the prestigious Patrick White Playwrights' Award in 2003 for Windmill Baby.

Culture and Lifestyle in Australia

Australia is a product of a unique blend of established traditions and new influences. The country’s original inhabitants, the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, are the custodians of one of the world’s oldest continuing cultural traditions. They have been living in Australia for at least 40 000 years and possibly up to 

60 000 years.

Shared values

The defining feature of today’s Australia is not only the cultural diversity of its people, but the extent to which they are united by an overriding and unifying commitment to Australia.

Within the framework of Australia’s laws, all Australians have the right to express their culture and beliefs and to participate freely in Australia’s national life.

At the same time, everyone is expected to uphold the principles and shared values that support Australia’s way of life. These include:

• respect for equal worth, dignity and freedom of the individual
• freedom of speech and association
• freedom of religion and a secular government
• support for parliamentary democracy and the rule of law
• equality under the law
• equality of men and women
• equality of opportunity
• peacefulness
• a spirit of egalitarianism that embraces tolerance, mutual respect, and compassion for those in need. Australia also holds firmly to the belief that no one should be disadvantaged on the basis of their country of birth, cultural heritage, language, gender or religious belief.

An egalitarian society

In most practical ways, Australia is an egalitarian society. This does not mean that everyone is the same or that everybody has equal wealth or property.

But it does mean that there are no formal or entrenched class distinctions in Australian society, as there are in some other countries. It also means that with hard work and commitment, people without high-level connections or influential patrons can realise their ambitions.

The unemployment rate is relatively low (in December 2007 it was 4.3 per cent) and the gross per capita income is around $39 000. All people are equal under the law in Australia and all Australians have the right to be respected and treated in a fair manner.

Language

All people in Australia are encouraged to learn English, which is the national language and an important unifying element of Australian society.

However, languages other than English are also valued. In fact, more than 15 per cent of Australians speak languages other than English at home.

The most commonly spoken languages after English are Italian, Greek, Cantonese, Arabic, Vietnamese and Mandarin. Australians speak more than 200 languages, including Indigenous Australian languages.

Australian English

While English is Australia’s national language, there are certain words and expressions that have become regarded as uniquely Australian through common usage. Some of them might seem strange to non-Australians.

The use of these colloquial or slang words, often coupled with an Australian sense of humour that is characterised by irony and irreverence, can sometimes cause confusion for international visitors. There are a number of books on Australian colloquialisms and slang, including the Macquarie Book of Slang.

Religious worship

Australia is a predominantly Christian country, with around 64 per cent of all Australians identifying as Christians. However, most other major religious faiths are also practised, reflecting Australia’s culturally diverse society.

Australia’s earliest religions or spiritual beliefs date back to the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, who have inhabited Australia for between 40 000 and 60 000 years. 
Indigenous Australians have their own unique religious traditions and spiritual values.

Australia has no official state religion and people are free to practise any religion they choose, as long as they obey the law. Australians are also free not to have a religion.

Vibrant arts scene

Australia has a vibrant arts scene that reflects both the nation’s Indigenous cultural traditions and its rich mosaic of migrant cultures. All forms of the visual and performing arts have strong followings, including film, art, theatre, dance and music.

According to one survey, almost 13 million or 88 per cent of adult Australians attend at least one cultural event or performance every year. The most popular art form is film, attended by about 70 per cent of the population each year. More than 26 per cent attend a popular music concert; 25 per cent go to an art gallery or museum; 19 per cent see an opera or musical; 18 per cent attend live theatre; 11 per cent attend a dance performance; and 9 per cent attend a classical music concert.

Visual artists have played an important role in shaping and reflecting Australia’s image. They range from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander artists to the nationalist painters of the Heidelberg School in Victoria, symbolic surrealists such as Sidney Nolan, Arthur Boyd and Albert Tucker and modern artists reflecting issues confronting contemporary Australia. Other notable Australian artists include John Brack, William Dobell, Russell Drysdale, Margaret Olley, John Olsen, Margaret Preston, Clifton Pugh, Jeffrey Smart, Brett Whiteley and Fred Williams.

Australia has a strong literary tradition, which started with the storytelling of Indigenous Australians and continued with the oral stories of convicts arriving in Australia in the late 18th century. Australia has one Nobel Prize for Literature to its credit, with novelist Patrick White receiving the award in 1973. Other recent Australian novelists whose work has a particularly Australian flavour include Peter Carey, Bryce Courtenay, Kate Grenville, Elizabeth Jolley, Thomas Keneally, Christopher Koch, David Malouf, Colleen McCullough, Christina Stead, Morris West and Tim Winton.

A sporting culture

Australians love their sport, both playing it and watching it.

Australia has often achieved impressive results at the elite level. In the 2004 Athens Olympic Games, Australia ranked fourth overall in the medal tally behind the United States, China and Russia. In the 2006 Football World Cup, Australia reached the final 16. Australia is also ranked the top cricketing nation in the world.

But it’s not just at this top level that Australians enjoy their sport. A recent national survey showed that more than 11 million Australians aged 15 or over participated at least once a week in physical activity for exercise, recreation and sport—a participation rate of almost 70 per cent. The 10 most popular physical activities were walking, aerobics/fitness, swimming, cycling, tennis, golf, running, bushwalking, football (often referred to as soccer in Australia) and netball. Other popular sporting activities include Australian football, rugby, hockey, basketball, baseball, car racing, horse racing, sailing and snow skiing.

The most watched sports in Australia include Australian Rules Football, a uniquely Australian game with roots traceable to early forms of rugby and Gaelic football, rugby league, rugby union and cricket. The Australian Open, held in Melbourne, is one of tennis’s four Grand Slam events. Australia has more than 120 national sporting organisations and thousands of state and local bodies.

A national cuisine?

Australia has one of the most diverse cuisines in the world, thanks to Asian and European migrant influences, a dining public that is happy to try innovative dishes and access to a plentiful supply of fresh and high–quality produce.

Australia, one of the world’s most efficient agricultural nations, produces high–quality vegetables, fruit and grains, meat, poultry, seafood, and cheeses and other dairy products. In addition, many new industries have been established to accommodate the growing Australian taste for exotic foods, including Asian greens, nashi pears, lychees, olives and herbs. Aquaculture products such as farmed Atlantic salmon and southern bluefin tuna are now available as well as the great range of seafood that comes from the ocean surrounding Australia, including Moreton Bay bugs (shellfish), ‘banana’ prawns, barramundi fish and oysters.

Australians enjoy a huge range of food in restaurants and homes, reflecting the country’s cultural diversity. Southern Europe has combined with Asia and the Pacific for new flavours and tastes. Italian, Chinese, Indonesian, Japanese, Greek, Thai, Malay, French and Vietnamese restaurants are common, particularly in the capital cities. Middle Eastern flavours are also rapidly emerging, with Moroccan and Lebanese flavours being used with local ingredients in mainstream cooking with notable success.

Traditional Australian bush tucker is also becoming more common, particularly in northern Australian restaurants, where kangaroo, buffalo, crocodile and emu can often be found on menus.

Historically, there has never been a cuisine typically regarded as Australian. Instead, Australian fare has evolved with the distinct layers of flavours that each new culture has added. Homesick expatriate Australians sometimes hanker for Australian food such as lamingtons (a sponge cake square dipped in chocolate and coconut), pavlovas (a meringue dessert named after the Russian ballet dancer Anna Pavlova) and vegemite (a commercially produced spread made from yeast products).

The Australian wine sector is recognised internationally as producing a full range of high-quality wine styles and varietals to match any dish, from full-bodied reds and deep fruity whites to sparkling, dessert and fortified wines.

Obeying the law

Community behaviour in Australia is governed by a combination of formal laws and informal social customs.

All people in Australia must obey the nation’s laws or face the possibility of criminal prosecution or civil action. People are also expected to generally observe Australian social customs, habits and practices even though they are not normally legally binding.

Serious criminal offences include murder, assault, sexual assault, paedophilia, violence against people or property, armed robbery or theft, dangerous driving of a motor car, possession and use of illegal drugs, fraud, and having sexual relations with young people who are aged below the legal age of consent, which is 16 in New South Wales but varies from state to state.

Smoking tobacco and drinking alcohol are not illegal, but there are many restrictions on their public use. It is against the law for any person to sell or supply alcohol or tobacco products to a person under the age of 18 years.

There are also laws against mistreating or neglecting animals, carrying weapons such as knives or guns, littering, polluting or disposing of wastes without permission and creating excessive noise. There is no death penalty in Australia.

Warm climate, informal people

Australia is so large that it experiences most climatic conditions, from tropical monsoons to hot, dry weather and snow. Generally, however, the climate is warm and temperate, particularly in the major coastal cities.

This relatively benign climate has resulted in a country where people spend a good deal of time outdoors at beaches, in the countryside or on sporting fields as either spectators or participants.

Australians tend to be gregarious and outgoing. Most are relatively informal socially and in their relationships with acquaintances and work colleagues.

In the workplace and among friends, Australians generally call each other by their first names. But this informality does not extend to physical contact. When meeting someone for the first time, it is usual to shake the person’s right hand with your right hand. People who do not know each other generally do not kiss or hug when meeting.

Australians queue or line up when waiting to be served in a shop, a bank, a government department, a cinema, or anywhere that a number of people are all seeking a service at the same time. Australians generally wait until it is their turn to be served or attended to. Being on time for meetings and appointments is important.

Clothing

The types of clothing that people wear reflect the diversity in Australian society and the variations in climate. There are no laws or rules on clothing, but Australians are expected to wear certain clothing in work situations—most workplaces have dress standards.

Outside the work situation, clothing is a personal choice—people dress for comfort, the social situation or the weather. Clubs, movie theatres and other places require people to dress in neat, clean clothes and wear appropriate footwear. Australia does not have an official national dress.

Celebrations and holidays

Most workers in Australia have around 12 national and state public holidays throughout the year, in addition to their annual holidays. These include:

• New Year’s Day, which is on 1 January every year. The most common time for people in Australia to take their annual leave is between mid-December and the end of January.
• Christmas and Easter, two of the most important dates in the Christian calendar. Christmas Day is on 25 December every year, while Easter is observed at some point between late March and late April each year.
• Boxing Day, the day after Christmas Day, is also a public holiday.
• Australia Day, on 26 January, is the day Australians celebrate the founding of the first European settlement in Australia in 1788.
• Anzac Day, on 25 April, is the day the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (Anzac) landed at Gallipoli in Turkey in 1915 during World War I. This day is set aside in memory of those who fought for Australia and those who lost their lives in war. The day is a national public holiday and is commemorated with ceremonies, the laying of wreaths and military parades.

There are also a number of other non-national holidays which are celebrated only in specific states and territories (or celebrated in all states, but at different times of the year). These include Labour (or Eight-Hour) Day and the official birthday of Queen Elizabeth.

Melbourne Cup Day, which occurs on the first Tuesday of November each year, is a public holiday in metropolitan Melbourne. The Melbourne Cup is a world-famous horse race which brings Australia almost to a standstill. For a few minutes, most people, whether at work, school or home, stop to watch the race on television.